I'm a skeptic — steelman psi for me

The Experimental Evidence for Parapsychological Phenomena: A Review

Cardena (2018)

Published in American Psychologist

Published in American Psychologist, this is the most authoritative recent overview of the entire field from a mainstream psychology journal. Start here for the strongest accessible case.

What if consciousness is not an emergent property of the brain? Observational and empirical challenges to materialistic models

Wahbeh, Radin, Cannard & Delorme (2022)

Frontiers in Psychology review examining six phenomena that challenge materialist models: remote viewing, ganzfeld telepathy (31% hit rate), presentiment (d=0.21, p<2.71×10⁻¹²), xenoglossy/savant syndrome, terminal lucidity (80%+ remission in dementia), and reverse priming (z=6.4, p=1.2×10⁻¹⁰). Compares physicalist theories (GWT, HOT, IIT) to non-local consciousness models (Orch-OR, analytic idealism, interface theory). Provides the theoretical framework for why psi phenomena matter to consciousness studies. Read this early to understand the paradigm stakes.

A Call for an Open, Informed Study of All Aspects of Consciousness

Cardeña et al. (2014)

Collective statement in Frontiers in Human Neuroscience signed by ~100 academics (including Nobel laureate Josephson) presenting six evidence-based arguments for the legitimacy of psi research. Read after the American Psychologist review to see the institutional backing behind the field.

A Compendium of the Evidence for Psi

Parker & Brusewitz (2003)

Published in European Journal of Parapsychology

Published in European Journal of Parapsychology vol. 18. An annotated map of the entire evidence base spanning classical studies, high-scoring subjects, and meta-analyses across all psi domains. Effect sizes cited for each paradigm: free-response ESP d=0.16 (78 studies), DMILS d=0.11, dream-ESP d=0.33 (Maimonides), extraversion/ESP d=0.20. Read this after the overview to orientate yourself to the full historical landscape before drilling into individual paradigms.

Meta-Analysis of Free-Response Studies, 1992--2008

Storm, Tressoldi & Di Risio (2010)

A large meta-analysis of ganzfeld and other free-response studies showing a consistent small effect. This is the quantitative backbone of the telepathy claim.

Stage 2 Registered Report: Anomalous Perception in a Ganzfeld Condition - A Meta-Analysis of More Than 40 Years Investigation

Tressoldi & Storm (2024)

The definitive ganzfeld meta-analysis: 78 studies (113 effect sizes, 1974-2020), ES = 0.08 (95% CI [0.04, 0.12]; BF₁₀ = 89.5). Passes four publication bias tests. No decline over time; effect stable since 1997. Key moderators: selected participants ES = 0.13 vs. 0.04; telepathy tasks ES = 0.08 vs. clairvoyance ES = 0.04. Registered-report format with pre-registered analysis plan addresses QRP concerns. This is the most methodologically rigorous cumulative ganzfeld analysis to date.

Feeling the Future: A Meta-Analysis of 90 Experiments on Anomalous Anticipation

Bem et al. (2015)

Ninety experiments, many by independent labs, pooled into a single meta-analysis of precognition. The cumulative statistical weight is substantial.

Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence: The Case of Non-Local Perception, A Classical and Bayesian Review of Evidences

Tressoldi (2011)

Directly addresses the "extraordinary claims" challenge using both frequentist and Bayesian meta-analysis across 200+ studies (6000+ participants). Shows strong Bayesian evidence for ganzfeld (BF=18.8M), remote viewing (BF=25.4B), and presentiment (BF=2.89×10^13), but not for normal-consciousness protocols. Provides quantitative framework for evaluating whether psi evidence meets evidential standards.

Unconscious Perception of Future Emotions: An Experiment in Presentiment

Radin (1997)

The paper that launched the presentiment paradigm. Four experiments with 31 participants show the autonomic nervous system differentiates between upcoming calm and extreme photos one second before display (permutation p = .008). Read this before the meta-analysis to see what the original data looked like.

Predictive Physiological Anticipation Preceding Seemingly Unpredictable Stimuli

Mossbridge, Tressoldi & Utts (2012)

A meta-analysis of "presentiment" studies showing the body responds to future events before they happen. Crosses from behavioral into physiological data.

Evidence for Consciousness-Related Anomalies in Random Physical Systems

Radin & Nelson (1989)

The foundational meta-analysis of micro-PK (mind-over-RNG) studies. Odds against chance are reported in the trillions to one.

Information Transmission Under Conditions of Sensory Shielding

Targ & Puthoff (1974)

Published in Nature

Published in Nature. The original SRI remote viewing paper that launched the U.S. government program. Hard to dismiss the venue.

Does Psi Exist? Replicable Evidence for an Anomalous Process of Information Transfer

Bem & Honorton (1994)

Published in Psychological Bulletin

Published in Psychological Bulletin. Summarizes the autoganzfeld experiments with tight protocols designed to answer every prior criticism.

Updating the Ganzfeld Meta-Analysis: A Response to Milton and Wiseman

Bem, Palmer & Broughton (2001)

Direct rebuttal to Milton & Wiseman's (1999) null meta-analysis. Analyzes 40 studies (3,146 trials) separating standard (n=29, 31.2% hit rate, ES=.096, Z=3.49, p=.0002) from non-standard protocols (n=9, 24.0%, ES=−.10, ns). Protocol adherence emerges as key moderator (r=.31, p=.024). Demonstrates the ganzfeld effect persists in post-1987 studies when quality controls are maintained. Read immediately after Milton & Wiseman to see the proponent response.

Replication and Meta-Analysis in Parapsychology

Utts (1991)

Published in Statistical Science

Published in Statistical Science with invited commentary from Diaconis, Mosteller, Berger, and other distinguished statisticians. Synthesizes four independent meta-analyses (ganzfeld, precognition, RNG-PK, dice-PK) all showing significant effects. The ganzfeld effect size (h=0.20) is triple that of aspirin on heart attacks. Bayarri & Berger's Bayes factor: 100-200:1 favoring psi. Read for the strongest statistical case in a top-tier statistics journal.

The Sense of Being Stared At, Part 1: Is It Real?

Sheldrake (2005)

A comprehensive review of 30,803 behavioral trials (54.7% vs. 50% chance; sign test p=1×10⁻²⁰) plus a meta-analysis of 15 CCTV/GSR staring studies — the largest single evidence base for a specific anomalous perception claim. Shows systematic artifact controls (blindfolding, electronic recording, removal of feedback) all still yielding positive results, and documents the experimenter effect: every CSICOP-affiliated skeptic investigator initially obtained positive results when subjects did the staring, but null results when the skeptic served as the looker.

The Sense of Being Stared At, Part 2: Its Implications for Theories of Vision

Sheldrake (2005)

The theoretical companion to Part 1. Surveys 2,500 years of intromission-vs-extramission debate in vision science, showing extramission was mainstream from Plato through Descartes and was displaced rather than refuted. Winer & Cottrell surveys show 92% of adults and 80% of children retain extramission intuitions despite corrective instruction. The intromission-only (computational/representational) theory makes a falsifiable prediction that SOBA should not exist — Part 1's data challenge it. Reviews Gibson's ecological perception, Velmans's reflexive model, and Sheldrake's morphic perceptual-field hypothesis as alternatives. Read immediately after Part 1 to grasp the full theoretical stakes.

Extrasensory Electroencephalographic Induction Between Identical Twins

Duane & Behrendt (1965)

Published in Science

Published in Science. EEG correlations between separated twins. Brief, early, and in the most prestigious journal possible.

The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox in the Brain: The Transferred Potential

Grinberg-Zylberbaum et al. (1994)

Extends Duane's twin EEG paradigm to non-twin pairs: 7 pairs in soundproof Faraday chambers 14.5 m apart after meditative interaction; ~25% show 'transferred potentials' (r = 0.70-0.93, p < 0.005) morphologically matching partner's evoked potentials. Launched the entire EEG brain-to-brain correlation research program replicated by Wackermann, Standish, Radin, and Achterberg.

Testing a Language-Using Parrot for Telepathy

Sheldrake, Morgana & Sheldrake (2003)

An African Grey parrot (N'kisi) scores 23 hits vs. 12.2 expected in 131 double-blind trials while his owner views sealed photographs in a separate room (p=0.00025, RPA; p=0.0002, BRA). Three independent blind transcribers and an independent statistician. One of the most controlled single-subject animal studies in the literature — and a useful test of the skeptic's methodological objections because the scoring is language-based rather than judgment-based.

On the Correspondence Between Dream Content and Target Material Under Laboratory Conditions: A Meta-Analysis of Dream-ESP Studies, 1966-2016

Storm, Sherwood, Roe, Tressoldi, Rock & Di Risio (2017)

First formal meta-analysis of dream-ESP literature: 50 studies (1,968 trials) yield ES=0.20, Stouffer Z=5.32, p=5.19×10^-8. Both Maimonides (ES=0.33) and non-MDL studies (ES=0.14) significant. Bayesian analysis confirms frequentist results. Shows significant effect but with decline over time despite quality improvements.

Telepathic Telephone Calls: Two Surveys

Sheldrake (2000)

Two UK random telephone surveys (London N=387, Bury N=200) establishing baseline prevalence in British population: 51% felt someone was going to telephone before they did; 65% had called someone who said they were just thinking of calling them; 49% knew who was calling without cues. Women significantly more likely than men (56% vs 41%, p < 0.0002). Notably, more people anticipated calls than reported psychic experiences (51% vs 38%), suggesting telephone anticipation may be an entry-point psi phenomenon. The foundational survey that launched the experimental telephone telepathy program.

The Anticipation of Telephone Calls: A Survey in California

Brown & Sheldrake (2001)

Telephone survey of 200 randomly selected California residents establishing baseline prevalence: 78% reported calling someone who said they were just thinking of calling them, 47% knew who was calling without cues, 68% thought of someone who then called same day. Provides the American population data that complements Sheldrake's English surveys and motivates the experimental protocols that follow.

Experimental Tests for Telephone Telepathy

Sheldrake & Smart (2003)

The foundational controlled experiment testing telephone telepathy: 63 participants, 571 trials with 4-caller die-throw protocol; 40% hits vs 25% chance (Stouffer combined p = 4x10⁻⁶, 95% CI 36-45%). Familiar callers 53% correct vs unfamiliar 25% (chance level, p = 3x10⁻⁷ for difference); overseas callers (1,000-11,000 miles) 65% correct. Introduced the protocol that became standard for all subsequent telephone/email/SMS telepathy experiments. Read between the surveys and the email study to see how the observational claims were first tested experimentally.

Testing for Telepathy in Connection with E-mails

Sheldrake & Smart (2005)

Two-series study using time-stamped e-mail records to confirm that guesses precede messages. Series 1 (552 trials, unfilmed): 43% vs. 25% chance, p=2×10⁻¹⁹, d=0.42. Series 2 (137 trials, continuous video surveillance): 47%, p=3×10⁻⁸, d=0.50. The familiar-sender advantage survives a permutation-based response-bias correction. An unusually clean protocol for everyday-life psi: timestamp records are server-side and cannot be altered, and filmed sessions excluded the possibility of coordinated signals. [Companion: Sheldrake, Godwin & Rockell (2004) — filmed TV replication of the telephone protocol with the Nolan Sisters, 12 trials, 50% hit rate, p=0.05, with blind video evaluation by Pam Smart; catalog ID: `sheldrake_2004_nolan_telephone`.]

Telepathy in Connection with Telephone Calls, Text Messages and Emails

Sheldrake (2014)

Comprehensive overview synthesizing 15+ years of telephone/email/SMS telepathy research: telephone 40-45% vs 25% chance, email 43-47%, SMS 37.9-44.2%, automated phone 56% vs 50% (600+ trials, p=0.001). Confidence strongly predicted accuracy (85% when 'confident'). Precognition control tests at chance level, supporting telepathy rather than precognition as mechanism. Read this after the 2005 email paper to see the full scope of the experimental program before the 2025 meta-analysis.

Automated Tests for Telephone Telepathy Using Mobile Phones

Sheldrake, Smart & Avraamides (2015)

First automated mobile phone telepathy experiments (published 2015, conducted post-2008): 2080 trials with three callers (41.8% vs 33.3%, p<10^-15, d=0.19) and 745 trials with two callers (55.2% vs 50%, p=.003, d=0.10). Online pre-registration, fully automated system, ecological real-world conditions. Effect sizes smaller than supervised studies, possibly due to convenience sampling and lack of participant screening. Demonstrates scalability of paradigm with tradeoff in effect magnitude.

Telecommunication Telepathy: A Meta-Analysis

Sheldrake, Stedall & Tressoldi (2025)

Capstone quantitative synthesis for the telephone/email/SMS paradigm: 26 experiments from 15 papers, telepathy-condition ES.Hits = 8.7% above chance (95% CI 5.3-11.9, p=4x10^-8), and precognition-condition results near chance. Read this immediately after the 2005 email paper to test whether the broader program still holds under mixed labs and protocols.

Consciousness and the Double-Slit Interference Pattern: Six Experiments

Radin (2012)

Six experiments suggesting consciousness can influence a quantum optical system. Provocative and precisely measured.

Anomaly or Artifact? Comments on Bem and Honorton

Hyman (1994)

Now read the best skeptical counterargument to the ganzfeld. Hyman concedes the data are not due to fraud but questions whether they demonstrate psi.

Searching for the Impossible: Parapsychology's Elusive Quest

Reber & Alcock (2019)

The hardline theoretical objection: psi cannot exist because it contradicts known physics. Forces you to decide whether data or theory should win.

A Bayes Factor Meta-Analysis of Recent ESP Experiments

Rouder et al. (2013)

A Bayesian reanalysis of Storm et al. (2010) that reaches more conservative conclusions. Shows how analytic choices shift the verdict. --- --- ## How to use this path - If you are an AI agent: Each paper is cited with its catalog ID in backticks. Cross-reference with `_CATALOG.json` for full bibliographic information and methodology data. - If you are a human reader: Follow the papers in order for a steelman of the psi case aimed at skeptics. - To update: When new papers are added to the library that advance this path's purpose, add them in order and renumber all subsequent entries. Back to [Reading Paths Index](_INDEX.md)